طلب مواضيع حول . linguist

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الاخ العزيز المشرف وجميع الاخوة ارجو ان اجد مواضيع حول l. linguist

[Kassim]

انا الان عندي موضوعين عن ما يسمى ب (Linguist)
الموضوع الأول : What is a linguist ?
الموضوع الثاني: Linguists seek a time when we spoke as one

نبدأ بالموضوع الأول : What is a linguist ?

A linguist can be several things, but in any sense a linguist is a person who is skilled in some way with a given ********, including ancient ***************. The term linguist can be used to describe a person who specializes in linguistics, which is the study of ********, or a linguist can be a person well versed in the translation, interpretation, and application of a ********. Simultaneously, a linguist may also be a person who is fluent in multiple ***************.

In the academic sense, a linguist is a person who engages in and studies linguistics. Simply put, linguistics refers to the scientific study of ******** – both theoretical and practical. A person studying or professionally practicing either theoretical or applied linguistics is said to be a linguist.

Examples of theoretical linguistics include grammar, syntax, semantics, origin, and phonetics. Applied linguistics encompasses practical utilization of the knowledge of a ********, such as an interpreter, translator, a speech therapist, or a ******** teacher or professor.

Though the spoken word and written word often intertwine, a linguist focuses more on the spoken word than the written word. A polyglot, or person skilled in multiple ***************, for example, could be considered a linguist. A person skilled in the written word may be considered a linguist, but would more so depend on the length and depth of his or her area of study in linguistics.

There is often some distinction made between linguists themselves, but in the ordinary sense of explanation a linguist is any person who is highly educated in both the practical and theoretical elements of one or more given ********. There are both associations and professional organizations where a linguist may affiliate with other specialists who share their interests. One such organization is the Chartered Institute of Linguists, which publishes their own magazine titled The Linguist.

A linguist differs from a lexiphile, a modernly applied term for someone who loves words, because a linguist is learned in an entire ******** and not just specific words and has more theoretical knowledge of a ******** than just an expansive vocabulary. For those who are more than casually interested in both words and ******** but not as a course of study, check out KPBS Radio, 89.5 FM in San Diego, which broadcasts a live radio show titled A Way With Words. The show explores many aspects of the English ******** including grammar and origins and the use of specific words and phrases are discussed as well.

و الموضوع الثاني :
Linguists seek a time when we spoke as one
by (Moises Velasquez-Manoff, Christian Science Monitor)

A controversial research project is trying to trace all human ******** to a common root.
Around 50,000 years ago, something happened to our ancestors in Africa. Anatomically modern humans, who had existed for at least 150,000 years prior, suddenly began behaving differently. Until then, their conduct scarcely differed from that of their hominid cousins, the Neanderthals. Both buried their dead; both used stone tools; and as social apes, both had some form of communication, which some think was gestural.
But then, "almost overnight, everything changes very rapidly," says Merritt Ruhlen, a lecturer in the Anthropological Sciences Department at Stanford University in Palo Alto, Calif. Humans began making much better stone tools. They started burying their dead with accouterments that suggested religion. And perhaps most telling, Homo sapiens, the "wise" apes, began creating art.

"People started having imagination at this time much more than they had earlier," says Dr. Ruhlen.

Many scientists think that fully modern human ******** enabled this "great leap forward." ******** enabled abstract thought, the deciding factor in archaic humans becoming – well, us. And because scientists surmise that ******** arose only once, they believe that before leaving Africa to colonize the world, all humankind spoke one ********. Linguists have dubbed it "proto-world" or "proto-sapiens."
A multidisciplinary team of scientists at the Santa Fe Institute in New Mexico is working toward reconstructing that mother of all ***************. Headed by Nobel Laureate physicist Murray Gell-Mann, the international Evolution of Human *************** (EHL) project is developing a freely accessible etymological database of the world's ***************. Where possible, EHL linguists are attempting to reconstruct – and then compare – ancestor ***************, moving ever closer to the first human ********. Viewed by many linguists as a fringe movement, the project has attracted much criticism. Many linguists say that historical *************** cannot be studied beyond an 8,000-year threshold; they change too much, they say. Some take issue with the project's methods: A few words shared among reconstructed *************** doesn't prove a familial relationship, they insist, especially far back in time.

*************** change constantly. Speakers invent or borrow words to suit their needs. But for reasons not completely understood, some *************** change more than others. Italian, for example, has remained much closer to ancestral Latin than French. Lithuanian has many words that almost exactly match Sanskrit, which was spoken 3,500 years ago. And some ******** "families" like Afroasiatic retain words in common even after more than 10,000 years of divergent evolution.

"That time limit is totally wrong," says John Bengtson, vice president of the Association for the Study of ******** in Prehistory in Cambridge, Mass. "*************** that have been separated 8,000 years get down to a low percentage of common words. However, that low percentage seems to be very stable."

And there begins EHL's approach. Within ***************, linguists think that because certain words – including the pronoun "we" and the number "one" – form the basis of a functional ********, they are much less likely to change or be lost. EHL linguists begin by comparing this "basic lexicon." They include "words that are thoroughly essential and must have been in human ******** before significant cultural advances were made," writes EHL team member George Starostin, a linguist at the Russian State University for the Humanities in Moscow, in an e-mail.

Using this method, EHL has grouped all the world's *************** into 12 linguistic superfamilies. They've tentatively grouped four of these superfamilies, which include *************** of Eurasia, North Africa, and some Pacific islands (and maybe *************** of the Americas as well) into one super-superfamily dubbed "Borean." An ancestor to a large share of today's ***************, Borean was spoken some 16,000 years ago when glaciers covered much of Europe and North America, they say.

EHL linguists use several methods. One – the most controversial, but not the most widely used, says Starostin – involves matching words and meanings across ***************. For example, Ruhlen and Bengtson have noticed that a word roughly corresponding to "water," which they render in proto-sapiens as "AQWA," appears in many ***************. In Latin it's "aqua"; in Japanese, "aka" means "bilge water"; in Chechen, meanwhile, "aq" means "to suck"; in an African Kung dialect, "kau" means "to rain"; and in Central American Yucatec, "uk" means "to be thirsty."

But critics look at etymologies like these and see only problems. They're too loose with meanings and sounds, they say. And too many alternate explanations exist: Maybe the word was borrowed from one ******** and spread to the others. Perhaps it's onomatopoetic, a word that sounds like what it is. ("Cock-a-doodle-doo" is an onomatopoetic word that appears in similar form in many ***************, but that doesn't prove relation.) Finally, the shorter the word – in some of the ***************, just one syllable rather than two or three – the greater the possibility of a chance match.

"You've presented this list of words, but it looks like you can explain these lists in several different ways," says Lyle Campbell, a professor of linguistics at the University of Utah in Salt Lake City. "Their data is really easy to challenge, and it's really easy to find words that are similar to one another across ***************."

EHL linguists argue that they're only doing exactly what Sir William Jones, who first postulated a common ancestor for classical Greek, Latin, and Sanskrit, did in the 18th century. (Indo-European, the eventual result of Jones's initial observations, is perhaps the most widely accepted ******** family.) Historical linguistics begins by observing similarities that occur more frequently than dictated by chance, they say – and they're just starting.

The comparison to Jones also underscores another argument central to EHL's endeavor. The further one moves back in time, the more related *************** should resemble one another, they believe. "It is more risky because you're comparing two or more hypotheticals to arrive at an even more hypothetical construction," says Mr. Bengtson, "but we think it's still a valid thing to try to do."

Human genetic evidence appears to support EHL's basic assumptions. The human genome indicates that all humanity traces its ancestry to as few as 1,000 individuals who lived between 50,000 and 60,000 years ago. This small founding population may explain how the capacity for ******** spread so quickly. "Bottlenecks play a very important part in human evolution," says Ruhlen. "This was the first major bottleneck."

Genetics also suggests two separate migrations out of Africa. One followed the south coast of Asia, ending up in Australia at least 45,000 years ago. The other took the land route through the Middle East into Central Asia, where they went both west into Europe and east, eventually reaching the Americas.

Very tentatively, EHL has grouped the world's *************** into three super-superfamilies corresponding to these migrations: those that correspond with the coastal route, which include Papuan ***************; those that correspond with the land route out of Africa, descendants of Borean, the best reconstructed; and the "click" *************** spoken by the San, or "Bushmen," of southern Africa. Scientists think that the San most resemble the first modern humans. Their ********, almost unique in its use of click sounds that perhaps other early *************** lost, may best conserve traces of proto-sapiens.

Recently, EHL further refined its hypothesis. How could the 16,000-year-old Borean have engendered the lion's share of Eurasian, North African, and American ***************? Some 20,000 years ago, at the peak of the last ice age, the world lost much of its linguistic diversity, they argue. Advancing glaciers pushed humanity south, mashing linguistic groups together. As in later periods of human history – like now – only a few *************** emerged from that mixing. Borean, they say, was one of them.

هذا هو ما استطعت فهمه منك (اي موضوع في Linguist ) لذالك إذا كان عندك أي استفهام أو يكون عندك موضوع معين و محدد ,إن شاء الله أستطيع أن أفيدك .

تقبل خالص تحياتي :
Kassim